HERODOTUS AND THE BIBLE

by

Wayne Jackson

 

Herodotus was a Greek historian of the 5th century B.C. It is

believed that he lived approximately 484-425 BC For a number of years

he traveled throughout the Persian empire, Egypt, and Scythia observing

the culture of these ancient peoples. In his later life, Herodotus

lived in Athens, and finally settled in Italy where he spent the

remainder of his days refining his famous masterpiece, `The Persian

Wars'. As a consequence of this work, Cicero dubbed him "the father of

history." His literary efforts consisted of nine books dealing with the

Greek/Persian wars (500-479 BC), together with a history of the customs

and geography of these combatants. In his effort to accomplish this

feat, he went further and sought to give, as an introduction to the

story, the whole history of the antique world as it was then known.

This material occupies the first six of his nine books. He is generally

viewed as the first writer to so unify the record of facts as to raise

historical narrative to the level of literature. It should be noted,

however, that his history was written in an age that lacked an

abundance of solid factual documentation; his work is thus considerably

grounded in oral tradition.

In numerous instances, the narratives of the Old Testament, and

those of Herodotus, cross trails. Do the writings of this Greek

historian have any bearing on the text of the Bible? Indeed they do.

Liberal writers have long claimed that many of the Old Testament

records do not actually possess the antiquity they claim. Some of them

are alleged to have come from a much later period. What shall be said

in response to these charges? What does the evidence actually indicate?

The documents of the Old Testament frequently appeal to cultural

elements and ancient events which should be consistent with the eras

from which they purport to come. Thus, these are "checkable" matters.

Do the biblical writings bear those tell-tale marks of accuracy which

one has a right to expect if they are genuine historical records

reflecting the background of the Hebrew people within a given time-

frame? We confidentially affirm that they do, and the writings of

Herodotus become an important source of information in this

controversy.

THE BIBLE, HERODOTUS, AND EGYPT

As every serious Bible student knows, the activities of the

Egyptian and the Israelite people come together several times in

ancient history. From the time of Abraham, through the period of the

exodus, there was considerable familiarity between Egypt and the

Hebrews. Consider the following examples which provide a sense of

integrity to the Jewish Scriptures.

The common title of the Egyptian rulers was "Pharaoh" (Genesis

39:1; Exodus 5:1), meaning "the great house." Herodotus mentions an

Egyptian ruler called "Pheron" (ii.111), a name or title strikingly

similar to the foregoing. In Genesis the Pharaoh is represented as

having great authority (40:3,21-22; 41:34, 41-44). Similarly the Greek

historian describes the supreme control of the Egyptian rulers who

could arbitrarily make laws (ii.136,177).

One recalls the lewdness of Potiphar's wife who, though married,

continuously sought to seduce the young Joseph (Genesis 39:7-10).

Herodotus tells of an Egyptian ruler who, for the sake of performing an

experiment, searched "at length" for a married woman "who had been

faithful to her husband" (ii.111).

Pharaoh's chief butler, with whom Joseph was imprisoned, dreamed of

returning to his position and of squeezing ripe grapes into the king's

cup (Genesis 40:10-11). Some critics cite this as a biblical mistake,

asserting that Herodotus declares that the Egyptians grow no vines

(ii.77). However, the historian may have been alluding only to certain

regions of Egypt, since elsewhere he specifically mentions the priests

as drinking "wine made from the grape" (ii.37). In the dream of the

chief baker, the baker saw himself carrying baskets of bread upon his

head (Genesis 40:16). Herodotus mentions that whereas the Egyptian

women transported burdens upon their shoulders, the men carried them

upon their heads (ii.35). This is the very opposite of the custom in

many countries.

When Joseph received his estranged brothers into his house, they

were given water with which to wash their feet (Genesis 43:24). There

is the record of an Egyptian ruler who had a golden foot-pan "in which

his guests" were provided water to wash their feet (ii.172). The Mosaic

narrative records that when Joseph's brothers returned from Canaan with

Benjamin, the ruling prince commanded his servants to slay animals and

prepare a noontime feast for his visiting kinsmen (Genesis 43:16).

While some have contended that the Egyptians, due to their worship of

animals, did not eat flesh, the evidence does not warrant that

conclusion. Herodotus notes of certain priests: "...every day bread is

baked for them of the sacred corn, and a plentiful supply of beef and

of goose's flesh is assigned to each" (ii.37). Elsewhere he describes

how a sacrificial "steer" is prepared for ceremonial feasting (ii.40).

The Genesis account states that the Egyptians would not eat bread with

the Hebrews for such a practice was an abomination from their religious

viewpoint (43:32). The Egyptians considered all foreigners unclean.

Concerning the Greeks, the "father of history" writes: "...no native of

Egypt, whether man or woman, will give a Greek a kiss, or use the knife

of a Greek, or his spit, or his cauldron, or taste the flesh of an ox,

known to be pure, if it has been cut with a Greek knife" (ii.41).

The medical profession in Egypt was highly advanced. Herodotus

observed that medicine was specialized so that "each physician treats a

single disorder" (ii.84). Jeremiah once chastised: "O virgin daughter

of Egypt: in vain dost thou use many medicines; there is no healing for

thee" (45:11). When Jacob died, "physicians" were commanded by Joseph

to embalm the patriarch (Genesis 50:2). The Greek historian gives an

elaborate description of the embalming process which commenced with the

removal of most of the brain with an iron hook through the nostrils,

the balance being flushed out with drugs. The body cavity was filled

"with the purest bruised myrrh, with cassia, and every other sort of

spicery" (ii.86). One cannot but be reminded of that Ishmaelite caravan

to which Joseph was sold. Headed down into Egypt, it was bearing

"spicery and balm and myrrh" (Genesis 37:25; cf. John 19:39). The body

was then put into a "wooden case" which had been "carved into the

figure of a man." Joseph's body was placed in a coffin when he expired

(Genesis 50:26). When Jacob died, "the Egyptians wept for him seventy

days" (Genesis 50:3). Herodotus describes how Egyptian men and women,

during the mourning period, would wander the streets, beating their

breasts (ii.85).

After Joseph died, a new king arose in Egypt who was not so

favorably disposed toward the Hebrew people. The Israelites became

slaves under a despotic ruler. "Taskmasters" were set over them and

they were employed in the manufacture of bricks made of mud (Exodus

1:14). Though stone was a ready building material in Egypt, Herodotus

speaks of bricks made of mud (ii.136). These were used in ordinary

dwelling houses, tombs, walls, etc. The bricks were made of river mud

and straw, shaped in wooden molds and left to dry in the sun. The

chemical decay of the straw within the clay formed an acid which gave

the clay greater plasticity for brick-making. Remember that when the

Israelites' labor was intensified, they were forced to provide their

own straw (Exodus 5:10-13). In the Oriental Institute in Chicago, there

is a dried mud brick, with protruding fragments of straw, stamped with

the Cartouche (oval figure) of Ramses II.

When Moses was a baby, his mother hid him for three months, fearing

the wrath of the Pharaoh. When she could conceal the child no longer,

she made a small boat of bulrushes, i.e., the papyrus plant, and placed

it at the edge of the Nile river (Exodus 2:3). The use of papyrus in

making boats was distinctly Egyptian and not in vogue elsewhere.

Herodotus mentions the use of papyrus in caulking Egyptian boats and in

the manufacture of sails (ii.96).

THE BIBLE, HERODOTUS, AND ASSYRIA

When Hezekiah was ruler of Judah, Sennacherib, king of Assyria,

marched against Israel's southern kingdom (see II Kings 18:13ff; Isaiah

36:1ff). According to his records, the monarch took forty-six Judean

cities. In fact, he sent his army to Jerusalem where he boasted that he

shut up Hezekiah "like a bird in a cage." He did not, however, take the

holy city. Why not? Because Jehovah intervened, in response to

Hezekiah's prayer, and destroyed 185,000 Assyrian soldiers in one night

(II Kings 19:35). Herodotus has a garbled account of this disaster that

crippled the Assyrian forces. He records that Sennacherib marched

against Egypt. During a certain night, though, field mice supposedly

invaded the Assyrian camp and gnawed the quivers, bow strings and

leather shield handles, thus disarming the military force. As a

consequence, many of the soldiers were killed and others fled (ii.141).

Dr. I. M. Price, who served as professor of Semitic languages and

literature at the University of Chicago, noted that this account "has

some basis, doubtless, in fact, and is an echo of some calamity to the

Assyrian army" (1907, p 191). Leon J. Wood commented that the account

provides "indirect confirmation of the biblical miracle" (1986, p 306).

J. P. Free observes: "There is no evidence in the archaeological

records that Sennacherib ever returned to the region of Palestine"

(1950, p 209). This is a dramatic commentary on the Assyrian army's

loss to the might of Jehovah.

THE BIBLE, HERODOTUS, AND THE PHOENICIANS

Phoenicia was a small country on the Mediterranean coast northwest

of Canaan. Naturally, there was frequent contact between the

Phoenicians and the Hebrew people. Again, the accuracy of the biblical

descriptions of these people is forcefully demonstrated by the secular

historical record. The Old Testament represents the Phoenicians as

skilled in the hewing of timber (I Kings 5:6). They were fine craftsmen

in gold, silver, brass, and iron. The king of Tyre made some of the

vessels and pillars for Solomon's temple (I Kings 7:21-23). Herodotus

once visited Tyre, a leading city of Phoenicia, and he described a

temple as "richly adorned with a number of offerings, among which were

two pillars, one of pure gold, the other of emerald, shining with great

brilliancy at night" (ii.44). The historian commented that the people

of Tyre boasted that their city had stood for 2,300 years. Isaiah

appears to take note of this claim: "Is this your joyous city, whose

antiquity is of ancient days?" (23:7). Several Old Testament prophets

foretold Tyre's subjection to the Babylonians (see Jeremiah 25:22;

27:1-11; Ezekiel 26:1-28:19; 29:18-20; Zechariah 9:2ff). Isaiah

declared that Tyre would be "forgotten seventy years," but that after

that period (likely the era of the Babylonian domination), the city

would "return to her hire," that is, her prosperity would resume

(23:15-17). This is confirmed by Herodotus who notes that in the time

of the Persian rulers, Darius Hystaspis and Xerxes, the Phoenicians

were providing their ships as allies for Persian conquests (v.108;

vii.89).

THE BIBLE, HERODOTUS, AND BABYLON

Ancient Babylon was known as the "glory of the kingdoms" (Isaiah

13:19), indeed "the praise of the whole earth" (Jeremiah 51:41).

Babylon's beauty, strength and prominence were unparalleled in the

ancient world. The citadel seemed impregnable. Jeremiah alluded to

Babylon's massive fortifications (51:53,58). Herodotus says that the

city was enclosed by great walls 350 feet high and 75 feet thick

(i.178). Isaiah spoke of Babylon's "doors of brass" (45:2). The Greek

historian declared that 100 gates of brass were in the wall (i.179).

There are several prophecies which indicate that God would

overthrow the "golden city" by the providential use of His "shepherd,"

His "anointed one," Cyrus, king of Persia (Isaiah 44:28; 45:1), and in

conjunction therewith He would "dry up" Babylon's water (Isaiah 44:27;

Jeremiah 50:38; 51:36). What does this mean? Herodotus describes the

city as straddling the Euphrates river. He records that Cyrus diverted

the river, by means of a canal, into a nearby basin. Even then, says

he, the Babylonians could have defended the city, except for the fact

that in their confidence they "were engaged in a festival"

characterized by dancing and revelry, and so were taken by surprise

(i.191). With great precision, Jeremiah prophesied this very

circumstance. The inmates of the city would be feasting and drunken

(51:39,57), and thus captured unaware (50:24). It must be emphasized in

this connection that Jeremiah gave these prophecies about 56 years

before the fall of Babylon (cf. 51:59), and about 150 years before the

Greek historian produced his work! In a curious declaration, Isaiah

prophetically addresses Babylon as follows: "Come now, and sit in the

dust, O virgin daughter of Babylon, sit on the ground" (47:1). What is

the significance of the appellation "virgin"? It apparently is a

reference to the fact that the mighty city had never been ravished

before. Significantly, Herodotus describes the assault of Cyrus as "the

first taking of Babylon" (i.191). Incredible!

THE BIBLE, HERODOTUS, AND PERSIA

After the fall of Babylon, the Hebrews were under Persian control

for two centuries. Cyrus, a benevolent Persian monarch, had issued a

decree that allowed the Jews to return to their homeland to rebuild

their temple. A start in the construction project was initiated but it

eventually fell into disarray. Finally, after more than 15 years, the

work was resumed. There was, however, at first, mild opposition. Did

the Jews have regal authority for the project? A search was made for

Cyrus' original decree of authorization. When the document was located,

oddly, it was not found in Babylon or Susa, as might be expected since

this was where the Persian kings usually resided, but in Achmetha

(Ecbatana) in the province of the Medes (Ezra 6:2). There is a passage

in Herodotus, however, which appears to indicate that, contrary to the

usual custom, Cyrus held his court in Ecbatana, hence, kept his

archives there (i.153). As Professor Rawlinson of Oxford observed,

"this is one of those little points of agreement between the sacred and

the profane which are important because their very minuteness is an

indication that they are purely casual and unintentional" (1873, p

196).

When the original document of Cyrus was located, Darius, the then-

reigning monarch, issued a decree authorizing the resumption of work on

the temple, even providing expense money from "tribute" collected in

the provinces "beyond the [Euphrates] river" (Ezra 6:8). According to

Herodotus, Darius was the first Persian king to extract such "tribute"

money (iii.89). Moreover, the king warned that if any should alter his

decree, "let a beam be pulled out from his house, and let him be lifted

up and fastened thereon" (Ezra 6:11). This was no idle threat, for, as

Herodotus records, at the second conquest of Babylon, Darius crucified

about 3,000 citizens of the city (iii.159).

In the book of Esther one learns that the maidens of the royal

harem could only go into unto the king when their "turn" came (Esther

1:12), and any violation of this procedure could incur the death

penalty (4:11). Herodotus says: "In Persia a man's wives sleep with him

in their turns" (iii.69), and invasion of the king's privacy was

punishable by death (iii.72,77). Mordecai, Esther's cousin, had foiled

a plot against the life of king Ahasuerus (Esther 2:21-22), and an

account of that act of patriotism had been written in "the book of

records" (Esther 6:1). In Persia, a list of "the king's benefactors"

was maintained with a view of returning such kindnesses (viii.85).

Examples like those of the foregoing paragraphs could be multiplied

many times over. Truly, Herodotus provides unwitting testimony to the

accuracy of the Old Testament. The precision of the ancient Scriptures

is utterly amazing. The Bible passes every test of credibility. Let us

honor it as the Word of the living God.

REFERENCES

Free, Joseph P. (1950), `Archaeology and Bible History' (Wheaton, IL:

Van Kampen Press).

`Histories of Herodotus' (1964), George Rawlinson, Translator (London:

Dent), 2 volumes.

Price, Ira M. (1907), `The Monuments and the Old Testament'

(Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society).

Rawlinson, George (1873), `Historical Illustrations of the Old

Testament' (Boston: Henry Young & Co.).

Wood, Leon J. (1986), `A Survey of Israel's History' (Grand Rapids:

Zondervan).

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